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<p>An <b>economic indicator</b> is a <a href="Statistic" title="Statistic">statistic</a> about an <a href="Economics" title="Economics">economic activity</a>. Economic indicators allow analysis of economic performance and <a href="Prediction" title="Prediction">predictions</a> of future performance. One application of economic indicators is the study of <a href="Business_cycle" title="Business cycle">business cycles</a>. Economic indicators include various indices, earnings reports, and economic summaries: for example, the <a href="Unemployment" title="Unemployment">unemployment</a> rate, quits rate (quit rate in American English), <a href="Housing_starts" title="Housing starts">housing starts</a>, <a href="Consumer_price_index" title="Consumer price index">consumer price index</a> (a measure for <a href="Inflation_(economics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Inflation (economics)">inflation</a>), <a href="Inverted_yield_curve" title="Inverted yield curve">inverted yield curve</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="Consumer_leverage_ratio" title="Consumer leverage ratio">consumer leverage ratio</a>, <a href="Industrial_production" title="Industrial production">industrial production</a>, <a href="Bankruptcies" class="mw-redirect" title="Bankruptcies">bankruptcies</a>, <a href="Gross_domestic_product" title="Gross domestic product">gross domestic product</a>, <a href="Broadband_internet_access" class="mw-redirect" title="Broadband internet access">broadband internet penetration</a>, <a href="Retail_sales" class="mw-redirect" title="Retail sales">retail sales</a>, <a href="Price_index" title="Price index">price index</a>, and changes in <a href="Credit" title="Credit">credit</a> conditions.
</p><p>The leading business cycle dating committee in the <a href="United_States" title="United States">United States of America</a> is the private <a href="National_Bureau_of_Economic_Research" title="National Bureau of Economic Research">National Bureau of Economic Research</a>. The <a href="Bureau_of_Labor_Statistics" title="Bureau of Labor Statistics">Bureau of Labor Statistics</a> is the principal fact-finding agency for the U.S. government in the field of labor economics and statistics. Other producers of economic indicators includes the <a href="United_States_Census_Bureau" title="United States Census Bureau">United States Census Bureau</a> and United States <a href="Bureau_of_Economic_Analysis" title="Bureau of Economic Analysis">Bureau of Economic Analysis</a>.
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification_by_timing">Classification by timing</h2></div>
<p>Economic indicators can be classified into three categories according to their usual timing in relation to the business cycle: leading indicators, lagging indicators, and coincident indicators.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Leading_indicators">Leading indicators</h3></div>
<p>Leading indicators are indicators that usually, but not always, change before the economy as a whole changes.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are therefore useful as short-term <a href="Dependent_and_independent_variables" title="Dependent and independent variables">predictors</a> of the economy. Leading indicators include the index of consumer expectations, building permits, and credit conditions. <a href="The_Conference_Board" title="The Conference Board">The Conference Board</a> publishes a composite <a href="Conference_Board_Leading_Economic_Index" title="Conference Board Leading Economic Index">Leading Economic Index</a> consisting of ten indicators designed to predict activity in the U. S. economy six to nine months in future.
</p><p>Components of the Conference Board's Leading Economic Indicators Index:<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<ol><li><b>Average weekly hours (manufacturing)</b> — Adjustments to the working hours of existing employees are usually made in advance of new hires or layoffs, which is why the measure of average weekly hours is a leading indicator for changes in unemployment.</li>
<li><b>Average weekly initial jobless claims for <a href="Unemployment_insurance" class="mw-redirect" title="Unemployment insurance">unemployment insurance</a></b> — The CB reverses the value of this component from positive to negative because a positive reading indicates a loss in jobs. The initial jobless-claims data is more sensitive to business conditions than other measures of unemployment, and as such leads the monthly unemployment data released by the <a href="U.S._Department_of_Labor" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Department of Labor">U.S. Department of Labor</a>.</li>
<li><b>Manufacturers' new orders for consumer goods/materials</b> — This component is considered a leading indicator because increases in new orders for consumer goods and materials usually mean positive changes in actual production. The new orders decrease inventory and contribute to unfilled orders, a precursor to future revenue.</li>
<li><b>Vendor performance (slower deliveries diffusion index)</b> — This component measures the time it takes to deliver orders to industrial companies. Vendor performance leads the business cycle because an increase in delivery time can indicate rising demand for manufacturing supplies. Vendor performance is measured by a monthly survey from the National Association of Purchasing Managers (NAPM). This diffusion index measures one-half of the respondents reporting no change and all respondents reporting slower deliveries.</li>
<li><b>Manufacturers' new orders for non-defense <a href="Capital_goods" class="mw-redirect" title="Capital goods">capital goods</a></b> — As stated above, new orders lead the business cycle because increases in orders usually mean positive changes in actual production and perhaps rising demand. This measure is the producer's counterpart of new orders for consumer goods/materials component (#3).</li>
<li><b>Building permits</b> for new private housing units.</li>
<li><b>Stock prices of 500 common stocks</b> — Equity market returns are considered a leading indicator because changes in stock prices reflect investors' expectations for the future of the economy and interest rates. </li>
<li><b>Leading Credit Index</b> - a composite index developed by the Conference Board consisting of six financial indicators such as yield spreads, loan survey information and investor sentiment<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>
<li><b>Interest rate spread</b> (10-year Treasury vs. Federal Funds target) — The <a href="Interest_rate" title="Interest rate">interest rate</a> spread is often referred to as the yield curve and implies the expected direction of short-, medium- and long-term interest rates. Changes in the <a href="Yield_curve" title="Yield curve">yield curve</a> have been the most accurate predictors of downturns in the economic cycle. This is particularly true when the curve becomes inverted, that is, when the longer-term returns are expected to be less than the short rates.</li>
<li><b>Index of consumer expectations</b> — This is the only component of the leading indicators that is based solely on expectations. This component leads the business cycle because consumer expectations can indicate future <a href="Consumer_spending" title="Consumer spending">consumer spending</a> or tightening. The data for this component comes from the <a href="University_of_Michigan" title="University of Michigan">University of Michigan</a>'s Survey Research Center, and is released once a month.</li></ol>
<p>Economist D.W. Mackenzie suggests that the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dwmackenzie.substack.com/p/new-evidence-of-impending-recession">ratio of private to public employment</a> may also be useful as a leading economic indicator.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lagging_indicators">Lagging indicators</h3></div>
<p>Lagging indicators are indicators that usually change after the economy as a whole does. Typically the lag is a few quarters of a year. The unemployment rate is a lagging indicator: employment tends to increase two or three quarters after an upturn in the general economy.. In a performance measuring system, profit earned by a business is a lagging indicator as it reflects a historical performance; similarly, improved customer satisfaction is the result of initiatives taken in the past.
</p><p>The Index of Lagging Indicators is published monthly by <a href="The_Conference_Board" title="The Conference Board">The Conference Board</a>, a non-governmental organization, which determines the value of the index from seven components.
</p><p>The Index tends to <i>follow</i> changes in the overall economy.
</p><p>The components on the Conference Board's index are:
</p>
<ul><li>The average duration of <a href="Unemployment" title="Unemployment">unemployment</a> (inverted)</li>
<li>The value of outstanding commercial and industrial <a href="Loan" title="Loan">loans</a></li>
<li>The change in the <a href="Consumer_Price_Index" class="mw-redirect" title="Consumer Price Index">Consumer Price Index</a> for services</li>
<li>The change in labour cost per unit of output</li>
<li>The ratio of manufacturing and trade inventories to sales</li>
<li>The ratio of consumer credit outstanding to personal income</li>
<li>The average <a href="Prime_rate" title="Prime rate">prime rate</a> charged by banks</li></ul>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Coincident_indicators">Coincident indicators</h3></div>
<p>Coincident indicators change at approximately the same time as the whole economy, thereby providing information about the current state of the economy. There are many coincident economic indicators, such as <a href="Gross_Domestic_Product" class="mw-redirect" title="Gross Domestic Product">Gross Domestic Product</a>, industrial production, personal income and retail sales. A coincident index may be used to identify, after the fact, the dates of peaks and troughs in the business cycle.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>There are four economic statistics comprising the Index of Coincident Economic Indicators:<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<ul><li>Number of employees on non-agricultural <a href="Payroll" title="Payroll">payrolls</a></li>
<li><a href="Personal_income" title="Personal income">Personal income</a> less transfer payments</li>
<li>Industrial production</li>
<li>Manufacturing and <a href="Trade_sale" title="Trade sale">trade sale</a></li></ul>
<p>The Philadelphia Federal Reserve produces state-level coincident indexes based on 4 state-level variables:<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<ul><li>Nonfarm payroll employment</li>
<li>Average hours worked in manufacturing</li>
<li><a href="Unemployment_rate" class="mw-redirect" title="Unemployment rate">Unemployment rate</a></li>
<li>Wage and salary <a href="Disbursement" title="Disbursement">disbursements</a> deflated by the consumer price index (U.S. city average)</li></ul>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="By_direction">By direction</h2></div>
<p>There are also three terms that describe an economic indicator's <i>direction</i> relative to the direction of the general economy:
</p>
<dl><dt><a href="Procyclical_and_countercyclical" class="mw-redirect" title="Procyclical and countercyclical">Procyclical</a> indicators</dt>
<dd>move in the same direction as the general economy: they increase when the economy is doing well; decrease when it is doing badly. <a href="Gross_domestic_product" title="Gross domestic product">Gross domestic product</a> (GDP) is a procyclic indicator.</dd>
<dt><a href="Procyclical_and_countercyclical" class="mw-redirect" title="Procyclical and countercyclical">Countercyclical</a> indicators</dt>
<dd>move in the opposite direction to the general economy. The <a href="Unemployment_rate" class="mw-redirect" title="Unemployment rate">unemployment rate</a> and the <a href="Wage_share" class="mw-redirect" title="Wage share">wage share</a> are countercyclic: in the short run they rise when the economy is deteriorating.</dd>
<dt><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/acyclical" class="extiw external" title="wikt:acyclical">Acyclical</a> indicators</dt>
<dd>are those with little or no correlation to the business cycle: they may rise or fall when the general economy is doing well, and may rise or fall when it is not doing well.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Local_indicators">Local indicators</h2></div>
<p>Local governments often need to project future tax revenues. The city of San Francisco, for example, uses the price of a one-bedroom apartment on <a href="Craigslist" title="Craigslist">Craigslist</a>, weekend subway ridership numbers, parking garage usage, and monthly reports on passenger landings at the city's airport.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div>
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<ul><li><a href="Big_Mac_Index" title="Big Mac Index">Big Mac Index</a></li>
<li><a href="Bureau_of_Labor_Statistics" title="Bureau of Labor Statistics">Bureau of Labor Statistics</a></li>
<li><a href="CAPRI_model" title="CAPRI model">CAPRI model</a></li>
<li><a href="Consumer_confidence_index" title="Consumer confidence index">Consumer confidence index</a></li>
<li><a href="Consumer_leverage_ratio" title="Consumer leverage ratio">Consumer leverage ratio</a></li>
<li><a href="Consumer_price_index" title="Consumer price index">Consumer price index</a></li>
<li><a href="Core_inflation" title="Core inflation">Core inflation</a></li>
<li><a href="Cost-weighted_activity_index" title="Cost-weighted activity index">Cost-weighted activity index</a></li>
<li><a href="Disposable_household_and_per_capita_income" title="Disposable household and per capita income">Disposable household and per capita income</a></li>
<li><a href="Employment-to-population_ratio" title="Employment-to-population ratio">Employment rate</a></li>
<li><a href="Economic_data" title="Economic data">Economic data</a></li>
<li><a href="Fundamental_analysis" title="Fundamental analysis">Fundamental analysis</a></li>
<li><a href="Genuine_Progress_Index" class="mw-redirect" title="Genuine Progress Index">Genuine Progress Index</a></li>
<li><a href="Hemline_index" title="Hemline index">Hemline index</a></li>
<li><a href="Inflation" title="Inflation">Inflation</a></li>
<li><a href="Lipstick_effect" title="Lipstick effect">Lipstick effect</a></li>
<li><a href="List_of_economic_reports_by_U.S._government_agencies" title="List of economic reports by U.S. government agencies">List of economic reports by U.S. government agencies</a></li>
<li><a href="Macroeconomic_indicators" title="Macroeconomic indicators">Macroeconomic indicators</a></li>
<li><a href="Misery_index_(economics)" title="Misery index (economics)">Misery index (economics)</a></li>
<li><a href="Purchasing_Managers'_Index" title="Purchasing Managers' Index">Purchasing Managers' Index</a></li>
<li><a href="List_of_countries_by_real_GDP_per_capita_growth" title="List of countries by real GDP per capita growth">real GDP per capita growth</a></li>
<li><a href="The_Conference_Board" title="The Conference Board">The Conference Board</a></li></ul></div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>
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<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.conference-board.org/topics/us-leading-indicators">"US LEADING INDICATORS"</a>. <i>www.conference-board.org</i>. July 20, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 August</span> 2023</span>.</cite></span>
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<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Smith, Charles Emrys, "Economic Indicators", in Wankel, C. (ed.) <i>Encyclopedia of Business in Today's World</i> (2009). California, US.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFYamarone2012" class="citation book cs1">Yamarone, Richard (2012). "Indexes of Leading, Lagging, and Coincident Indicators". <i>The Trader's Guide to Key Economic Indicators</i>. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. pp. <span class="nowrap">47–</span>63. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9781118532461.ch2">10.1002/9781118532461.ch2</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9781118532461</bdi>.</cite></span>
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<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.philadelphiafed.org/research-and-data/regional-economy/indexes/coincident/">"State Coincident Indexes"</a>. Federal Reserve Bank of Philadelphia<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 October</span> 2010</span>.</cite></span>
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<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">About.com, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://economics.about.com/cs/businesscycles/a/economic_ind.htm">A Beginner's Guide to Economic Indicators</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090831095018/http://economics.about.com/cs/businesscycles/a/economic_ind.htm">Archived</a> 2009-08-31 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, retrieved November 2009. This was the source of "procyclic", "acyclic", etc., as well as confirmation of "leading", "lagging", etc., and the source of some of the examples.</span>
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<cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=125837367">"A Fresh Approach To Measuring The Economy"</a>. <i>NPR</i>. 2010-04-11<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-04-20</span></span>.</cite></span>
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</ol></div></div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>
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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Economic_indicators" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:Economic indicators">Economic indicators</a></span>.</div></div>
</div>
<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.oecd.org/leadind/composite-leading-indicator-cli.htm">OECD Economic Indicators</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.census.gov/mobile/">Economic Indicators Mobile App</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://stats.bls.gov/">U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.conference-board.org/economics/indicators.cfm">The Conference Board - Economic Indicators</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100816132839/http://www.federalreserveeducation.org/resources/economic_indicators/">FED101 - Economic Indicators</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.statistik.tuwien.ac.at/ameli">International Conference on Indicators and Survey Methodology</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170622053649/http://www.statistik.tuwien.ac.at/ameli/">Archived</a> 2017-06-22 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aier.org/research/business-cycle-conditions">Economic Indicators</a> Monthly analysis from American Institute for Economic Research (AIER)</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.macroaxis.com/invest/economic-indicators">Top Economic Indicators History</a> Top Economic Indicators Grouped by Categories</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111211015206/http://www.esa.doc.gov/about-economic-indicators">U.S. Economic Indicators</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170828145148/https://www.quandl.com/collections/usa/usa-economy-data">United States Economic Indicators (current and historical, open data)</a> (quandl.com)</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/browse/collection.action?collectionCode=ECONI">GPO Economic Indicators</a></li></ul>
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</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Economics681" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Economics681" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Economics" title="Economics">Economics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Economics#Theoretical_research" title="Economics">Theoretical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Microeconomics" title="Microeconomics">Microeconomics</a>
<ul><li><a href="Decision_theory" title="Decision theory">Decision theory</a></li>
<li><a href="Price_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Price theory">Price theory</a></li>
<li><a href="Game_theory" title="Game theory">Game theory</a></li>
<li><a href="Contract_theory" title="Contract theory">Contract theory</a></li>
<li><a href="Mechanism_design" title="Mechanism design">Mechanism design</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Macroeconomics" title="Macroeconomics">Macroeconomics</a></li>
<li><a href="Mathematical_economics" title="Mathematical economics">Mathematical economics</a></li>
<li><a href="Complexity_economics" title="Complexity economics">Complexity economics</a></li>
<li><a href="Computational_economics" title="Computational economics">Computational economics</a>
<ul><li><a href="Agent-based_computational_economics" title="Agent-based computational economics">Agent-based computational economics</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Behavioral_economics" title="Behavioral economics">Behavioral economics</a></li>
<li><a href="Pluralism_in_economics" title="Pluralism in economics">Pluralism in economics</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Economics#Empirical_research" title="Economics">Empirical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Econometrics" title="Econometrics">Econometrics</a>
<ul><li><a href="Economic_statistics" title="Economic statistics">Economic statistics</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Experimental_economics" title="Experimental economics">Experimental economics</a></li>
<li><a href="Economic_history" title="Economic history">Economic history</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Applied_economics" title="Applied economics">Applied</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt">
<ul><li><a href="Agricultural_economics" title="Agricultural economics">Agriculture</a></li>
<li><a href="Business_economics" title="Business economics">Business</a></li>
<li><a href="Cultural_economics" title="Cultural economics">Cultural</a></li>
<li><a href="Demographic_economics" title="Demographic economics">Demographic</a></li>
<li><a href="Development_economics" title="Development economics">Development</a></li>
<li><a href="Ecological_economics" title="Ecological economics">Ecological</a></li>
<li><a href="Education_economics" title="Education economics">Education</a></li>
<li><a href="Engineering_economics" title="Engineering economics">Engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="Environmental_economics" title="Environmental economics">Environmental</a></li>
<li><a href="Evolutionary_economics" title="Evolutionary economics">Evolutionary</a></li>
<li><a href="Financial_economics" title="Financial economics">Financial</a></li>
<li><a href="Economic_geography" title="Economic geography">Geographic</a></li>
<li><a href="Happiness_economics" title="Happiness economics">Happiness</a></li>
<li><a href="Health_economics" title="Health economics">Health</a></li>
<li><a href="Economic_history" title="Economic history">History</a></li>
<li><a href="Information_economics" title="Information economics">Information</a></li>
<li><a href="Infrastructure_and_economics" title="Infrastructure and economics">Infrastructure</a></li>
<li><a href="Institutional_economics" title="Institutional economics">Institutions</a></li>
<li><a href="Labour_economics" title="Labour economics">Labour</a></li>
<li><a href="Law_and_economics" title="Law and economics">Law</a></li>
<li><a href="Managerial_economics" title="Managerial economics">Management</a></li>
<li><a href="Non-monetary_economy" title="Non-monetary economy">Non-monetary</a></li>
<li><a href="Organizational_economics" title="Organizational economics">Organization</a></li>
<li><a href="Economics_of_participation" title="Economics of participation">Participation</a></li>
<li><a href="Personnel_economics" title="Personnel economics">Personnel</a></li>
<li><a href="Economic_planning" title="Economic planning">Planning</a></li>
<li><a href="Economic_policy" title="Economic policy">Policy</a></li>
<li><a href="Public_economics" title="Public economics">Public sector</a></li>
<li><a href="Public_choice" title="Public choice">Public choice</a></li>
<li><a href="Social_choice" class="mw-redirect" title="Social choice">Social choice</a></li>
<li><a href="Regional_economics" title="Regional economics">Regional</a></li>
<li><a href="Regulatory_economics" title="Regulatory economics">Regulatory</a></li>
<li><a href="Natural_resource_economics" title="Natural resource economics">Resources</a></li>
<li><a href="Rural_economics" title="Rural economics">Rural</a></li>
<li><a href="Service_economy" title="Service economy">Service</a></li>
<li><a href="Transport_economics" title="Transport economics">Transport</a></li>
<li><a href="Urban_economics" title="Urban economics">Urban</a></li>
<li><a href="Welfare_economics" title="Welfare economics">Welfare</a></li></ul></div></div>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="Schools_of_economic_thought" title="Schools of economic thought">Schools</a><br>(<a href="History_of_economic_thought" title="History of economic thought">history</a>)<br></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Attention_economy" title="Attention economy">Attention</a></li>
<li><a href="Mainstream_economics" title="Mainstream economics">Mainstream</a></li>
<li><a href="Heterodox_economics" title="Heterodox economics">Heterodox</a></li>
<li><a href="American_School_(economics)" title="American School (economics)">American (National)</a></li>
<li><a href="Ancient_economic_thought" title="Ancient economic thought">Ancient thought</a></li>
<li><a href="Austrian_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Austrian School">Austrian</a></li>
<li><a href="Behavioral_economics" title="Behavioral economics">Behavioral</a></li>
<li><a href="Buddhist_economics" title="Buddhist economics">Buddhist</a></li>
<li><a href="Chartalism" title="Chartalism">Chartalism</a>
<ul><li><a href="Modern_monetary_theory" title="Modern monetary theory">Modern monetary theory</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Chicago_school_of_economics" title="Chicago school of economics">Chicago</a></li>
<li><a href="Classical_economics" title="Classical economics">Classical</a></li>
<li><a href="Critique_of_political_economy" title="Critique of political economy">Critique of political economy</a></li>
<li><a href="Economic_democracy" title="Economic democracy">Democratic</a></li>
<li><a href="Disequilibrium_macroeconomics" title="Disequilibrium macroeconomics">Disequilibrium</a></li>
<li><a href="Ecological_economics" title="Ecological economics">Ecological</a></li>
<li><a href="Evolutionary_economics" title="Evolutionary economics">Evolutionary</a></li>
<li><a href="Feminist_economics" title="Feminist economics">Feminist</a></li>
<li><a href="Freiwirtschaft" title="Freiwirtschaft">Freiwirtschaft</a></li>
<li><a href="Georgism" title="Georgism">Georgism</a></li>
<li><a href="Happiness_economics" title="Happiness economics">Happiness</a></li>
<li><a href="Historical_school_of_economics" title="Historical school of economics">Historical</a></li>
<li><a href="Humanistic_economics" title="Humanistic economics">Humanistic</a></li>
<li><a href="Institutional_economics" title="Institutional economics">Institutional</a></li>
<li><a href="Keynesian_economics" title="Keynesian economics">Keynesian</a>
<ul><li><a href="Neo-Keynesian_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Keynesian economics">Neo-</a> (<a href="Neoclassical_synthesis" title="Neoclassical synthesis">neoclassical–Keynesian synthesis</a>)</li>
<li><a href="New_Keynesian_economics" title="New Keynesian economics">New</a></li>
<li><a href="Post-Keynesian_economics" title="Post-Keynesian economics">Post-</a>
<ul><li><a href="Monetary_circuit_theory" title="Monetary circuit theory">Circuitism</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Malthusianism" title="Malthusianism">Malthusianism</a></li>
<li><a href="Marginalism" title="Marginalism">Marginalism</a></li>
<li><a href="Marxian_economics" title="Marxian economics">Marxian</a>
<ul><li><a href="Neo-Marxian_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Marxian economics">Neo-</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Mercantilism" title="Mercantilism">Mercantilism</a></li>
<li><a href="Mixed_economy" title="Mixed economy">Mixed</a></li>
<li><a href="Mutualism_(economic_theory)" title="Mutualism (economic theory)">Mutualism</a></li>
<li><a href="Neoclassical_economics" title="Neoclassical economics">Neoclassical</a>
<ul><li><a href="Lausanne_School" title="Lausanne School">Lausanne</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="New_classical_macroeconomics" title="New classical macroeconomics">New classical</a>
<ul><li><a href="Real_business-cycle_theory" title="Real business-cycle theory">Real business-cycle theory</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="New_institutional_economics" title="New institutional economics">New institutional</a></li>
<li><a href="Physiocracy" title="Physiocracy">Physiocracy</a></li>
<li><a href="Socialist_economics" title="Socialist economics">Socialist</a></li>
<li><a href="Stockholm_School_(economics)" title="Stockholm School (economics)">Stockholm</a></li>
<li><a href="Supply-side_economics" title="Supply-side economics">Supply-side</a></li>
<li><a href="Thermoeconomics" title="Thermoeconomics">Thermo</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="Economist" title="Economist">Economists</a><br></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Bernard_de_Mandeville" class="mw-redirect" title="Bernard de Mandeville">de Mandeville</a></li>
<li><a href="Fran%C3%A7ois_Quesnay" title="François Quesnay">Quesnay</a></li>
<li><a href="Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li>
<li><a href="Thomas_Robert_Malthus" title="Thomas Robert Malthus">Malthus</a></li>
<li><a href="Jean-Baptiste_Say" title="Jean-Baptiste Say">Say</a></li>
<li><a href="David_Ricardo" title="David Ricardo">Ricardo</a></li>
<li><a href="Johann_Heinrich_von_Th%C3%BCnen" title="Johann Heinrich von Thünen">von Thünen</a></li>
<li><a href="Friedrich_List" title="Friedrich List">List</a></li>
<li><a href="Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Bastiat</a></li>
<li><a href="Antoine_Augustin_Cournot" title="Antoine Augustin Cournot">Cournot</a></li>
<li><a href="John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li>
<li><a href="Hermann_Heinrich_Gossen" title="Hermann Heinrich Gossen">Gossen</a></li>
<li><a href="Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li>
<li><a href="L%C3%A9on_Walras" title="Léon Walras">Walras</a></li>
<li><a href="William_Stanley_Jevons" title="William Stanley Jevons">Jevons</a></li>
<li><a href="Henry_George" title="Henry George">George</a></li>
<li><a href="Carl_Menger" title="Carl Menger">Menger</a></li>
<li><a href="Alfred_Marshall" title="Alfred Marshall">Marshall</a></li>
<li><a href="Francis_Ysidro_Edgeworth" title="Francis Ysidro Edgeworth">Edgeworth</a></li>
<li><a href="John_Bates_Clark" title="John Bates Clark">Clark</a></li>
<li><a href="Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li>
<li><a href="Eugen_von_B%C3%B6hm-Bawerk" title="Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk">von Böhm-Bawerk</a></li>
<li><a href="Friedrich_von_Wieser" title="Friedrich von Wieser">von Wieser</a></li>
<li><a href="Thorstein_Veblen" title="Thorstein Veblen">Veblen</a></li>
<li><a href="Silvio_Gesell" title="Silvio Gesell">Gesell</a></li>
<li><a href="Irving_Fisher" title="Irving Fisher">Fisher</a></li>
<li><a href="Arthur_Cecil_Pigou" title="Arthur Cecil Pigou">Pigou</a></li>
<li><a href="Eli_Heckscher" title="Eli Heckscher">Heckscher</a></li>
<li><a href="Ludwig_von_Mises" title="Ludwig von Mises">von Mises</a></li>
<li><a href="Joseph_Schumpeter" title="Joseph Schumpeter">Schumpeter</a></li>
<li><a href="John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes">Keynes</a></li>
<li><a href="Frank_Knight" title="Frank Knight">Knight</a></li>
<li><a href="Karl_Polanyi" title="Karl Polanyi">Polanyi</a></li>
<li><a href="Ragnar_Frisch" title="Ragnar Frisch">Frisch</a></li>
<li><a href="Piero_Sraffa" title="Piero Sraffa">Sraffa</a></li>
<li><a href="Gunnar_Myrdal" title="Gunnar Myrdal">Myrdal</a></li>
<li><a href="Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Hayek</a></li>
<li><a href="Micha%C5%82_Kalecki" title="Michał Kalecki">Kalecki</a></li>
<li><a href="Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li>
<li><a href="Simon_Kuznets" title="Simon Kuznets">Kuznets</a></li>
<li><a href="Jan_Tinbergen" title="Jan Tinbergen">Tinbergen</a></li>
<li><a href="Joan_Robinson" title="Joan Robinson">Robinson</a></li>
<li><a href="John_von_Neumann" title="John von Neumann">von Neumann</a></li>
<li><a href="John_Hicks" title="John Hicks">Hicks</a></li>
<li><a href="Oskar_R._Lange" title="Oskar R. Lange">Lange</a></li>
<li><a href="Wassily_Leontief" title="Wassily Leontief">Leontief</a></li>
<li><a href="John_Kenneth_Galbraith" title="John Kenneth Galbraith">Galbraith</a></li>
<li><a href="Tjalling_Koopmans" title="Tjalling Koopmans">Koopmans</a></li>
<li><a href="E._F._Schumacher" title="E. F. Schumacher">Schumacher</a></li>
<li><a href="Milton_Friedman" title="Milton Friedman">Friedman</a></li>
<li><a href="Paul_Samuelson" title="Paul Samuelson">Samuelson</a></li>
<li><a href="Herbert_A._Simon" title="Herbert A. Simon">Simon</a></li>
<li><a href="James_M._Buchanan" title="James M. Buchanan">Buchanan</a></li>
<li><a href="Kenneth_Arrow" title="Kenneth Arrow">Arrow</a></li>
<li><a href="William_Baumol" title="William Baumol">Baumol</a></li>
<li><a href="Robert_Solow" title="Robert Solow">Solow</a></li>
<li><a href="Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Rothbard</a></li>
<li><a href="Alan_Greenspan" title="Alan Greenspan">Greenspan</a></li>
<li><a href="Thomas_Sowell" title="Thomas Sowell">Sowell</a></li>
<li><a href="Gary_Becker" title="Gary Becker">Becker</a></li>
<li><a href="Elinor_Ostrom" title="Elinor Ostrom">Ostrom</a></li>
<li><a href="Amartya_Sen" title="Amartya Sen">Sen</a></li>
<li><a href="Robert_Lucas_Jr." title="Robert Lucas Jr.">Lucas</a></li>
<li><a href="Joseph_Stiglitz" title="Joseph Stiglitz">Stiglitz</a></li>
<li><a href="Richard_Thaler" title="Richard Thaler">Thaler</a></li>
<li><a href="Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a></li>
<li><a href="Paul_Krugman" title="Paul Krugman">Krugman</a></li>
<li><a href="Thomas_Piketty" title="Thomas Piketty">Piketty</a></li>
<li><i>more</i></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Glossary_of_economics" title="Glossary of economics">Glossary</a></li>
<li><a href="List_of_economists" title="List of economists">Economists</a></li>
<li><a href="List_of_important_publications_in_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="List of important publications in economics">Publications</a> (<a href="List_of_economics_journals" title="List of economics journals">journals</a>)</li>
<li><a href="Schools_of_economic_thought" title="Schools of economic thought">Schools</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>
<ul><li>Category</li>
<li><a href="Index_of_economics_articles" title="Index of economics articles">Index</a></li>
<li>Lists</li>
<li><a href="Outline_of_economics" title="Outline of economics">Outline</a></li>
<li><a href="List_of_important_publications_in_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="List of important publications in economics">Publications</a></li>
<li><a href="Portal%3ABusiness" title="Portal:Business">Business portal</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
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</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1167393#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata2404" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1167393#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata2404" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Authority control databases </div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Economic indicators"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.worldcat.org/fast/901996">FAST</a></span></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Wirtschaftsindikator"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4249243-9">Germany</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Economic indicators"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85040831">United States</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Indicateurs économiques"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11950228t">France</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Indicateurs économiques"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11950228t">BnF data</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="経済指標"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00565456">Japan</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="ekonomické ukazatele"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph171129&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Economic indicators"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007531357805171">Israel</a></span></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lux.collections.yale.edu/view/concept/a4e2d2be-1a1e-425b-910b-d896dac76fb7">Yale LUX</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><!--htdig_noindex--><div><div class="zim-footer">
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